Functions

A function is a reusable block of code that performs a specific task. Functions are the fundamental building block of any JavaScript program.

Function declarations

The classic way to define a function:

function greet(name) {
    return `Hello, ${name}!`;
}

const message = greet("Ada");
console.log(message);

Result:

Hello, Ada!

Anatomy:

function - the keyword
greet - the function name
(name) - the parameter list
return - sends a value back to the caller
greet("Ada") - calling the function with the argument "Ada"

Functions without a return value

If a function does not return anything, it returns undefined:

function logMessage(text) {
    console.log(`[LOG] ${text}`);
}

const result = logMessage("Server started");
console.log(result);

Result:

[LOG] Server started
undefined

Function expressions

You can also assign a function to a variable:

const add = function (a, b) {
    return a + b;
};

console.log(add(3, 4));

Result:

The difference from a declaration: this function expression cannot be called before the const line runs (explained below).

Arrow functions

A shorter syntax introduced in ES6:

const multiply = (a, b) => {
    return a * b;
};

console.log(multiply(3, 4));

Result:

Implicit return

If the body is a single expression, you can omit the braces and return:

const double = (n) => n * 2;
console.log(double(5));

const greet = (name) => `Hello, ${name}!`;
console.log(greet("Grace"));

Result:

10
Hello, Grace!

Single parameter shorthand

With exactly one parameter, you can omit the parentheses:

const square = n => n * n;
console.log(square(4));

Result:

When to use which

Syntax	Best for
`function` declaration	Named functions, top-level functions, functions that need hoisting
`function` expression	Assigning to variables, passing as arguments
Arrow `=>`	Short callbacks, inline functions, methods that do not need their own `this`

Arrow functions have a different this behavior compared to regular functions. This matters when working with objects ( covered in the Objects chapter). For now, arrow functions are your go-to for short, simple functions.

Parameters and arguments

Parameters are the names listed in the function definition. Arguments are the actual values passed to the function.

Default parameters

Provide fallback values for missing arguments:

function greet(name = "stranger") {
    return `Hello, ${name}!`;
}

console.log(greet("Ada"));
console.log(greet());

Result:

Hello, Ada!
Hello, stranger!

Rest parameters

Collect any number of arguments into an array:

function sum(...numbers) {
    let total = 0;
    for (const num of numbers) {
        total += num;
    }
    return total;
}

console.log(sum(1, 2, 3));
console.log(sum(10, 20, 30, 40));

Result:

6
100

The rest parameter must be the last parameter:

function log(level, ...messages) {
    for (const msg of messages) {
        console.log(`[${level}] ${msg}`);
    }
}

log("INFO", "Server started", "Listening on port 3000");

Result:

[INFO] Server started
[INFO] Listening on port 3000

Return values

A function can return any value - numbers, strings, booleans, arrays, objects, even other functions:

function getUser() {
    return {
        name: "Ada",
        age: 36,
    };
}

const user = getUser();
console.log(user.name);
console.log(user.age);

Result:

Ada
36

Early return

return exits the function immediately. Use it to handle edge cases first:

function divide(a, b) {
    if (b === 0) {
        return "Cannot divide by zero";
    }
    return a / b;
}

console.log(divide(10, 2));
console.log(divide(10, 0));

Result:

5
Cannot divide by zero

This pattern - handling errors early and returning - is called a guard clause. It keeps your code flat instead of deeply nested.

Scope

Scope determines where a variable is accessible.

Block scope (`let` and `const`)

Variables declared with let or const are confined to the nearest {} block:

if (true) {
    const message = "inside block";
    console.log(message);
}

// console.log(message); // ReferenceError: message is not defined

Result:

inside block

Function scope

Variables declared inside a function are not accessible outside it:

function example() {
    const secret = 42;
    console.log(secret);
}

example();
// console.log(secret); // ReferenceError: secret is not defined

Result:

Global scope

Variables declared outside any function or block are global - accessible everywhere:

const appName = "MyApp";

function printAppName() {
    console.log(appName); // can access the global variable
}

printAppName();

Result:

MyApp

Minimize global variables. They can be modified from anywhere, making bugs hard to track.

Scope chain

Inner functions can access variables from outer functions:

function outer() {
    const x = 10;

    function inner() {
        const y = 20;
        console.log(x + y); // inner can access x from outer
    }

    inner();
    // console.log(y); // ReferenceError: y is not defined
}

outer();

Result:

Hoisting

Function declarations are hoisted - you can call them before they appear in the code:

console.log(greet("Ada"));

function greet(name) {
    return `Hello, ${name}!`;
}

Result:

Hello, Ada!

Function expressions and arrow functions stored in let or const cannot be called before initialization:

// console.log(add(1, 2)); // ReferenceError: Cannot access 'add' before initialization

const add = (a, b) => a + b;
console.log(add(1, 2));

Result:

The add binding exists before that line, but it is in the temporal dead zone (TDZ) until initialization finishes. var declarations are hoisted too, but only the declaration - not the assignment - so calling a var function expression early fails differently. This is another reason to avoid var.

Closures

A closure is a function that remembers the variables from the scope where it was created, even after that scope has finished executing:

function createCounter() {
    let count = 0;

    return function () {
        count++;
        return count;
    };
}

const counter = createCounter();
console.log(counter());
console.log(counter());
console.log(counter());

Result:

1
2
3

The inner function "closes over" the count variable. Each call to createCounter() creates a new, independent counter:

const counterA = createCounter();
const counterB = createCounter();

console.log(counterA()); // 1
console.log(counterA()); // 2
console.log(counterB()); // 1 - independent from counterA

Result:

1
2
1

Closures are fundamental to JavaScript. They power patterns like data privacy, factory functions, and event handlers.

Practical closure: private state

function createWallet(initialBalance) {
    let balance = initialBalance;

    return {
        deposit(amount) {
            balance += amount;
            return balance;
        },
        withdraw(amount) {
            if (amount > balance) {
                return "Insufficient funds";
            }
            balance -= amount;
            return balance;
        },
        getBalance() {
            return balance;
        },
    };
}

const wallet = createWallet(100);
console.log(wallet.getBalance());
console.log(wallet.deposit(50));
console.log(wallet.withdraw(30));
console.log(wallet.getBalance());
// balance is not directly accessible
// console.log(wallet.balance); // undefined

Result:

Callbacks

A callback is a function passed as an argument to another function:

function doTask(taskName, onComplete) {
    console.log(`Starting: ${taskName}`);
    // ... do work ...
    onComplete(taskName);
}

function handleComplete(name) {
    console.log(`Finished: ${name}`);
}

doTask("Download file", handleComplete);

Result:

Starting: Download file
Finished: Download file

Callbacks are commonly used with array methods (next chapter) and asynchronous operations.

Anonymous callbacks

You can pass an arrow function directly instead of defining a named function:

doTask("Process data", (name) => {
    console.log(`Done processing: ${name}`);
});

Result:

Starting: Process data
Done processing: Process data

Higher-order functions

A higher-order function is a function that takes a function as an argument or returns a function. You have already seen both:

doTask takes a callback - higher-order (takes a function)
createCounter returns a function - higher-order (returns a function)

function repeat(n, action) {
    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        action(i);
    }
}

repeat(3, (i) => console.log(`Step ${i}`));

Result:

Step 0
Step 1
Step 2

Higher-order functions are everywhere in JavaScript - array methods like map, filter, and reduce (covered in the next chapter) are all higher-order functions.

Pure functions

A pure function always returns the same output for the same input and has no side effects:

// Pure - same input always gives same output
function add(a, b) {
    return a + b;
}

// Impure - modifies external state
let total = 0;
function addToTotal(amount) {
    total += amount; // side effect
    return total;
}

console.log(add(2, 3)); // always 5
console.log(add(2, 3)); // always 5

console.log(addToTotal(10)); // 10
console.log(addToTotal(10)); // 20 - different result for same input

Result:

Prefer pure functions when possible - they are easier to test, debug, and reason about.

Immediately Invoked Function Expressions (IIFE)

A function that runs immediately after it is defined:

(function () {
    const secret = "hidden";
    console.log(`IIFE running with secret: ${secret}`);
})();

Result:

IIFE running with secret: hidden

IIFEs were historically used to create private scope before let/const and modules existed. You will see them in older code.

Summary

Function declarations are hoisted; expressions and arrow functions are not.
Arrow functions => provide concise syntax with implicit return for single expressions.
Default parameters provide fallback values; rest parameters collect extra arguments into an array.
Guard clauses (early returns) keep code flat and readable.
Scope determines variable accessibility: block, function, or global.
Closures let inner functions remember outer variables - key for private state and factories.
Callbacks are functions passed to other functions - foundational to async JavaScript.
Pure functions are predictable and testable - prefer them when possible.

Next up: Arrays - ordered collections of data and the powerful methods to work with them.

Function declarations​

Functions without a return value​

Function expressions​

Arrow functions​

Implicit return​

Single parameter shorthand​

When to use which​

Parameters and arguments​

Default parameters​

Rest parameters​

Return values​

Early return​

Scope​

Block scope (let and const)​

Function scope​

Global scope​

Scope chain​

Hoisting​

Closures​

Practical closure: private state​

Callbacks​

Anonymous callbacks​

Higher-order functions​

Pure functions​

Immediately Invoked Function Expressions (IIFE)​

Summary​

Function declarations

Functions without a return value

Function expressions

Arrow functions

Implicit return

Single parameter shorthand

When to use which

Parameters and arguments

Default parameters

Rest parameters

Return values

Early return

Scope

Block scope (`let` and `const`)

Function scope

Global scope

Scope chain

Hoisting

Closures

Practical closure: private state

Callbacks

Anonymous callbacks

Higher-order functions

Pure functions

Immediately Invoked Function Expressions (IIFE)

Summary